Popes. This is also why the political history of Italy is inevitably bound up with religious history6. At the end of this evolving process (1870 marked the occupation of Rome), the nine states into which the entire peninsula had been divided became one single political body.

It seems proper, at this point, to spell out the succession of Savoy kings:

- Victor Emanuel I (1802-1821);

- Charles Felix (1821-1831);

- Charles Albert (183l-1849);

- Victor Emanuel II (1849-1878);

- Humbert I (1878-1900).

These all took an active part in the national revolution. During the period 1815-1848, the climate of 'restoration' prevailed and had, at least partially, a 'reactionary' feel to it. Liberal ideas came to the fore. Movements and societies, often secret societies spread: they were intent on fostering more radical but democratically inspired revolution in political and social fields: the Carboneria, the Federates, the Students League, Joseph Mazzini 's Giovine Italia, Giovine Europa. From time to time there was an outburst of revolutionary movements over the periods 1820-1821, 1830-1831, 1834, 1843, 1845, and 1846. These are were a prelude to the great olitical social and national upheavals which began in Paris and then reached the main capitals and cities of Europe during February - June 1848: Vienna, Budapest, Prague, Berlin, Milan, Venice, Palermo, Nola. 'Constitutions' were forcefully imposed or spontaneously accepted. These Constitutions would, later on, be withdrawn by repressive authorities. Charles Albert granted the Statute on March 4, and led the first war of independence against Austria (1848-1849), but was defeated and forced to abdicate.

Compared with the previous order of things, most Catholics were unexpectedly forced to confront almost traumatic circumstances: freedom of the press and, therefore, freedom of religious propaganda; competition with secular, and at times anticlerical forces; the removal of secular privileges by the Siccardi Law (l850) like the ecclesiastical forum, immunity; the expulsion of the Jesuits from the Kingdom of Sardinia, the expulsion of the Sacred Heart Sisters, the expulsion of the Archbishop of Turin, Louis Fransoni; suppression of religious orders and the appropriation of all their goods; then in 1855, the limitations set on schools by the Bon Compagni Laws of 1848 and the Casati Laws of 1859. The decade 1852-1861 was dominated by the President of the Cabinet (Prime Minister), Camillo Benso di Cavour - he had already been a minister previously, in 1850. With the support of a coalition made up of old moderate Liberals and non-extremist Democrats, whose head was Urban Rattazzi, he conducted a vigorous style of politics aimed at secular liberalisation of the State, following the principle of a free Church in a free State. At the same time he carried on an intense and successful activity with the goal of internationalising the problem of Italian unity. This activity took place mostly during the years 1859- 1860 with the second war of independence (1859), the expedition of the thousand (I Mille 1860), headed by Joseph Garibaldi, and a series of annexations. It came almost to a complete end with the third war of independence (the annexation of the Venetian territory, in 1866) and with the occupation of Rome (1870).

Already on March 17, 1861,Victor Emanuel II had been officially proclaimed King of Italy, and Rome had been officially declared as its capital: it actually would become so only in l871 when the royal court and the government moved there. Prior to this event, the court and government had moved to Florence, the temporary capital of Italy, from 1865 to 1871.

6 On the one hand the existence of the Papal States was seen as an Italian political and territorial issue; on the other it

was seen as an important theological issue of interest to the universal Church and involving international politics.